· Viking Social Structure   · Material Culture   · Gods, Goddesses, and Legends   · Viking Age Women   · Trade   · Vikings Head West   · Leif Eriksson's Voyage   · Links to Viking Sites		Viking Material Culture: How they lived, what they made Click on the images below to view enlargements For much of what we know about the Vikings, we can thank Viking burial practices. According to custom, the dead were buried with things that would be useful in the afterlife. If you were the seafaring sort, a longship might come in right handy. As a consequence, archaeologists have unearthed numerous ship burials loaded to the gunwales with household goods (and plenty of treasure!). But since only the wealthy could afford these elaborate send-offs, we know far more about the possessions of the rich than we do about those of the "average joe" Viking. The culture of Scandinavia developed in isolation from the rest of Europe. When the period of the Viking raids began in the late 700s, it was the most "armed and dangerous" of the Norsemen who went out and made some acquaintances. Understandably, this would cast a negative light on most people's impressions of their "neighbors to the north." But the truth is, average people in Scandinavia wouldn't have thought of themselves as "Vikings." To go "i viking" was to go plundering. To the Scandinavians, "Viking" had a meaning roughly equivalent to our own word "pirate." The majority of the people we now call Vikings were contented stay-at-home types. The "other" Vikings Mostly, they were farmers. They grew barley for porridge and beer, rye for bread, and oats to feed their animals. Other crops were peas, beans, root vegetables and cabbage. Sheep and goats were raised for meat and milk. Strong seasonings such as cumin, horseradish and garlic added savor to their dishes. The remains of wooden troughs used for kneading dough have helped us learn about the Viking diet. While the rich enjoyed wheat loaves, sometimes made with fine white flour imported from outside Scandinavia, the poor baked their bread with whatever was at hand - even ground pine bark! Suppertime in a Viking home Photo credit: York Archaeological Trust - York, England   Generally, farming in Scandinavia was poor. Arable land was scarce and farming methods ill-suited to the rugged landscape of the North. Unlike the agile plows of Roman times, which allowed the cultivation of hillsides or irregularly shaped fields, the heavy wheeled plow of the Vikings restricted their farming to broad, flat areas. But the land was seldom broad or flat. For the necessities that farming couldn't supply, the Vikings relied on hunting and fishing. Elk and walrus were favorite game. In addition to using the meat of these animals, the Vikings carved handy utensils such as spoons and combs from the elk's antlers and the teeth and tusks of the walrus. Ship's ropes were made from walrus hide. Whales were hunted, but not with harpoons. Instead, the Vikings herded the whales into shallow inlets where they could be trapped and slaughtered. Colonies of seabirds were raided for down and feathers, which were used to make pillows and bedding. Rabbits, caught with snares, provided both meat for the stewpot and fur trim for clothing. Home is where the hearth is Viking houses were built of timber. Some houses had stone foundations, but most had their timber uprights sunk straight into the ground. Because trees were a precious resource in the coastal areas where settlements were built, solid timber walls were a rarity.   Open hearth of a reconstructed Viking house Photo credit: Canadian Heritage, Parks Canada Most often, walls were wattle and daub - the framing timbers woven through with sticks and brushwood, then given a nice, fresh coat of mud. The wooden roof frame got a covering of turf, which would remain green and growing during summer months. On a stone hearth in the center of the house, a fire burned continuously. A large cauldron for cooking hung over the fire. The smoke could escape through a hole in the roof, but without a proper chimney, the interior of a Viking house must have been smoky indeed. People and animals lived together under one roof. Pots and other utensils were hung from the roof beams. Often, these cooking vessels would be made of soapstone, which was easy to carve and retained heat well. In one corner, a tall handloom stood propped against a wall. The Viking loom consisted of a pair of uprights supporting a horizontal beam from which the warp was hung. The warp was tensioned by means of free-hanging stone weights tied to the ends of the warp yarns. Stone warp weights on a Viking loom Photo credit: York Archaeological Trust - York, England   Sheep and goats furnished weavers with wool. Flax for linen was also grown. Some of these textiles were exceedingly fine - up to 125 threads per inch! Dyes came from vegetable sources. A bright blue dye called "woad" was obtained from cabbage. The fancier the better While the Vikings didn't create what we would think of as "fine art," they liked to lavish rich decoration on everyday objects. Why settle for a plain wooden bench when you can own a fancy carved one? The Viking decorative style was characterized by vigorous meanders, chains of linked rings, tendrils and twists of energetic carving. Stylized animals were a popular motif - some were so stylized, it's hard to say exactly which animal was being depicted! Even an object as humble as a spoon for cleaning wax out of ears was considered worthy of decoration. An earspoon carved of walrus ivory Twists and tendrils - typical Viking style Full-time specialist craftworkers, such as carpenters and metalworkers, made up an entire class of Viking society. Their metalwork could be quite ingenious. To produce sword blades of very high quality, iron and steel wires were twisted together, then heated and hammered until the metals fused. Prize weapons were beautifully inlaid with silver and gold. The raw material for these weapons was shipped in from smelting operations in the countryside. The ore was dug from bogs and was of very poor quality, but the Vikings were skillful smelters who succeeded in refining this ore into high grade iron. In addition to weapons, metalsmiths also created delicate scales for traders to weigh their gold and silver, as well as iron padlocks for securing valuables. Keys to the various household locks would be worn in a bunch on the housewife's belt - a display of her status as a property holder.   Viking mechanical ingenuity - a folding iron knife Photo credit: York Archaeological Trust - York, England Mixing and matching Over time, as the Vikings opened far-flung trading connections, Scandinavia was exposed to a steady stream of "outside influences." While Viking craftsmen were never averse to borrowing, they always mixed foreign ideas with the design conventions of their own tradition. Some of the most intriguing objects of this late period were the product of Viking willingness to freely commingle not only decorative styles, but religious beliefs as well. A goldsmith's mold found in Denmark has side-by-side molds for casting both Christian crosses and Thor's hammers. (Judging by the mold, the demand for crosses was leading two-to-one.)   The Norse god Odin on a cross from Yorkshire Photo credit: York Archaeological Trust - York, England The great wooden churches built in the 10th and 11th centuries were often decorated with carvings that depicted scenes from pagan legends. Even burial markers showed a liberal mix of Christian and pagan symbols. Whatever else these late Vikings believed, they certainly believed in keeping their options open. Top of Page
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